Innovations in Higher Education. Including Black Language in Early Childhood Education: Addressing Linguistic Diversity in Teacher Preparation

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Innovations in Higher Education, coedited by Anthony Broughton, PhD, and Elisa泭Huss-Hage, MEd, aims to recognize and support the efforts of educators, staff, and administrators who prepare early childhood professionals. The column examines stories from the field, connections to theory and research, and recommendations for practices related to coursework, clinical experiences, and professionalism.
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The following was part of a written response shared by a preservice teacher in my (first authors) math methods course when I asked her and her peers to discuss their stance on the use of Black Language in learning settings: I do not believe that Black slang should be used in the classroom, especially as the teacher. Because, when teaching phonics, it can be hard for young children to hear the correct pronunciation of sounds in words. We should teach all children the correct way to pronounce individual sounds and words. This response reflects the view that using Black Language in educational settings is not appropriate or correct, revealing an outlook situated within泭anti-Blackness, which is a pervasive bias against African American people and their cultural practices that is often unconscious (Dumas & ross 2016). Despite the linguistic sophistication of Black Language, misguided views and implicit biases persist. Teachers often discourage and inhibit African American childrens organic expressions, both spoken and written, even though correcting African American childrens language is harmful and counterproductive in fostering language acquisition and development (Lee 2017). (See An Overview of Black Language and Raciolinguistics below).
We (the authors) are teacher educators at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and work with preservice educators. Our aim is to sever counterproductive and damaging linguistic ideologies and to end practices in learning settings that require children to talk in a way that fits a standardized form of English (what we refer to as泭White Mainstream English). We advocate for teacher education programs and faculty to prioritize equipping current and future educators with the knowledge and approaches necessary to create rich and inclusive educational environments where all children can express themselves authentically and where diverse linguistic practices are valued泭and celebrated.
In this article, we focus on the language practices of African American children and share about the need for a泭pro-Black泭Language perspective to be woven throughout educator preparation programs. In addition, we provide three strategies that teacher educators can use to help teacher candidates explore and examine their views on Black Language. These include identifying biases and examining current beliefs; building background knowledge; and summarizing, synthesizing, and reflecting泭on learning.
Our Context
We are African American women educators and inheritors of Black Language. We are also former classroom teachers. Combined, we have worked in the early primary grades through secondary education and across the curriculum, including mathematics, language, and literacy. We are currently teacher educators at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), where we teach math methods and early childhood and elementary education (first author) and 612 English and language arts methods and reading across the content areas (second author). Because our professional backgrounds cut across grade levels and content areas, we jointly offer a unique perspective on how language and cultural practices influence learning泭across disciplines.
We individually identified the need to address equity through a pro-Black lens based on the experiences we have had in our education-related roles over the years, where we have repeatedly witnessed preservice educators, seasoned professionals, and administrators express erroneous views of Black Language. In 2020, we met at UAB and connected over our shared goal to promote pro-Black pedagogies with teacher candidates and to encourage colleagues to do the same in their courses to address the deep issues of anti-Black racism in education spaces (Dumas &泭ross 2016).
An Overview of Black Language泭and Raciolinguistics
The term泭Black Languageotherwise referred to as泭African American泭Language,泭Ebonics, and泭African American Vernacular Englishindicates the historical context of Black Americans and acknowledges the deep connection between Black and African linguistic heritages (King 2020). Its roots lie in its function as a泭counter language, or a discourse of resistance: it was created by enslaved people as a communication system that was unintelligible to speakers of the dominant master class (Smitherman 2006). Shared experiences of enslavement among groups of Africans resulted in common language practices that continue today within Black communities.
Black Language comprises a rich tapestry of linguistic and rhetorical patterns and expressionsboth historically rooted and constantly evolving (Smitherman 2006; Ball et al. 2023). Despite its sophistication, it has been perpetually mischaracterized as deficient, reflecting longstanding biases in educational and linguistic approaches and assessment. Educators correction of African American childrens language is often rooted in implicit beliefs about Black Language and about泭marginalizedor泭more泭specificallyracialized泭children and泭families (Lippi-Green 2012).
Language bias occurs at a systemic level, impacting the language practices of minoritized individuals and groups (Lippi-Green 2012). Correction of African American childrens language in educational settings is connected to泭raciolinguistics,泭which is a concept that comes from the fields of linguistic anthropology and ethnic studies (see Alim, Rickford, & Ball 2016). Raciolinguistics is the study of how a languages value and effectiveness are judged by people of perceived dominance based on their evaluation of speakers from marginalized and racialized communities. Bias against Black Language is deeply embedded in pervasive deficit-based perspectives directed toward African Americans and has been in existence since people from West African societies were involuntarily sent to the present-day United States (Baugh 1999). For example, Bereiter and Engelmann (1966) presented unsound research purporting that African Americans possessed a language handicap, stating that Black Language was limited in its ability to express abstract and complex ideas. This description of Black Language is what Lippi-Green (2012) refers to as泭language-based racism泭and what Baker-Bell (2020) names泭anti-Black linguistic racism.
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Pro-Black泭Pedagogy in泭Teacher Preparation
Early childhood educators are called to operate from the knowledge that equity in education begins in early childhood and that [they] have a special opportunity and responsibility to advance equity in their daily classroom work with children and their work with families and colleagues. This includes understanding and being responsive to issues of bias and social justice (51勛圖厙 2020, 24). However, this responsibility does not belong to educators alone. Teacher educators have a crucial role in supporting current and future educators as they develop their belief systems about teaching and learning and to advance equity, more specifically with marginalized populations. As Sealey-Ruiz (2021) states, preservice teacher education programs are critical sites for foregrounding the discussion of race and problematizing the ways in which the social and academic behaviors of Black and Brown students are misread (60). Indeed, professional preparation programs should work to ensure that they reflect principles of equity and diversity throughout all aspects of their curricula, including related to race, ethnicity, and language (51勛圖厙泭2020, 27).
Evidence shows that more work is needed to attain these expectations. For example, an experimental study by Gilliam and colleagues (2016) revealed teacher bias in relation to African American boys in preschool classrooms. In the study, early childhood teachers were asked to watch videos of four children in a classroom (one African American girl, one African American boy, one White girl, and one White boy) and to identify disruptive behavior. Unbeknownst to the participants, the children did not, in fact, exhibit problematic behaviors. Yet 42 percent of participating teachers identified the African American boys as demonstrating behavior issues. Eye-tracking results showed that they gazed at the African American boys more than any of the other children, an indication that they perceived the African American boys required the most attention. Similarly, Morris and Perry (2017) found that African American girls in grades 612 are three times more likely than White girls to receive office referrals, often for subjective infractions. These studies exemplify a broader pattern of racial bias in educational settings, affecting perceptions and disciplinary actions toward African泭American children.
In thinking about educator preparation,泭anti-Blackness泭is not a separate special problem to be relegated to one course on diversity (Green 2024). Culturally and linguistically responsive approaches that highlight the strengths of African American children and the language they use can and should be embedded throughout teacher education coursework. Coupled with the focus on equity in early childhood noted earlier, national organizations such as the National Council of Teachers of English (2022) and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2020) identify schools and early learning programs as responsible for creating, supporting, and sustaining a climate of respect and appreciation for linguistic and cultural variation. Teacher educators can address pro-Black Language curriculum and approaches in any course they teach, whether it be math, social studies, play, teaching methods, or practicum seminars (see Boutte et al. 2024). (For more on泭pro-Black泭pedagogy at this level, read Toward泭Pro-Black泭Early Childhood Teacher Education, by Meir Muller and colleagues, in the Spring 2022 issue of泭Young Children.)
Valuing Black Language in Early泭Learning Settings
51勛圖厙s Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education position statement (2019) contends that educators acknowledge the legitimacy of childrens home languages and cultures and understand that they are cognitively, linguistically, and emotionally connected to both. It is crucial to acknowledge that Black Language is not merely a set of rules or vocabulary but an embodiment of identity and a way of making sense of the world for many African Americans (McMurtry 2024). When teachers expect children to speak according to White linguistic norms, they may impose cultural clashes that incite harm (Kochman 1983; Loosen & McMurtry 2019). Thus, educators, programs, and schools must recognize, honor, and be responsive to an African American childs language泭and culture.
To be responsive to the linguistic and cultural identities of African American children and families, preservice educators must acknowledge Black Language on its own terms (Turner 1985). This involves understanding Black Language as a rich language system encompassing distinctive grammar, discourse patterns, and narrative styles. African American children as young as 3 exhibit an understanding of Black Languages distinctive grammatical structures. For example, they can understand that the verb泭be泭in the sentence Cookie Monster be eating cookies conveys a habitual action, and they know the rules about when and when not to use the habitual泭be泭(Jackson & Green 2006). In a 1981 interview for泭The New Republic, Toni Morrison discussed the grammatical capacity of Black Language and the impact of limiting that capacity in泭learning settings:
Its terrible to think that a child with five different present tenses comes to school to be faced with books that are less than his own language. And then to be told things about this language, which is him, that are sometimes permanently damaging. . . . This is a really cruel fall-out of racism.
This highlights the need for educators to recognize that in addition to welcoming Black Language, we must also recognize that White Mainstream English may limit students who possess additional grammatical resources for expression (Rickford & Rickford 2000).
In addition to grammatical facility, African American children also demonstrate a range of narrative abilities (Bliss, Covington, & McCabe 1999). Their narrative styles make use of patterns to convey time, sequence, and recurring events. For example, researchers have found that African American children may employ泭topic-associating narratives, which feature a series of thematically linked episodes or anecdotes, in addition to泭topic-centered narratives, which feature a linear organization (Champion 1998; Bliss, Covington, & McCabe 1999; Champion 2003). The topic-associating narrative style has泭roots in African oral traditions and can also incorporate call-and-response patterns, repetition, and vivid imagery (Smitherman 2000). Avoiding erroneous assumptions about the efficacy of African American childrens narrative styles in educational settings requires knowledge of their rich linguistic practices (Bliss, Covington, & McCabe 1999). By moving beyond evaluations of correctness, educators can better understand how Black Language shapes African American childrens complex communications, including their grammatical and泭narrative structures.
Toward that end, we implement an activity with preservice educators to expose them to the critical issues surrounding Black Language in education spaces and the necessity to recognize, value, and sustain Black Language in their future learning settings. The activity illustrates that teachers who lack knowledge about Black Language can unintentionally practice raciolinguistic ideologies and anti-Blackness. Educators misinterpretations of childrens inherited language use can lead to ridicule, humiliation, and unjust disciplinary practices, causing both immediate and long-term harm to children (McMurtry 2021). The activity includes a scenario based on a composite of interactions that depicts a teacherwho does not use Black Languageconsistently misunderstanding the communicative attempts of an African American child and even assuming defiance at one point (Loosen & McMurtry 2019). The scenario often triggers reactions of recognition and realization from students, who comment on how frequently they have witnessed similar interactions. Together, we unpack the泭child-teacher泭interaction through a process of inquiry: First, we ask students about the observable facts of the interaction; then they discuss their interpretations of the teachers misunderstanding and the possible resulting immediate and long-term impacts on the child; finally, we consider ways the teacher could learn about and integrate linguistically responsive approaches to affirm the child, and students rewrite the scenario with these approaches in mind. By sharing activities and approaches like this with our students, we allow them to critically consider past experiences and plan for future practice from a pro-Black泭Language perspective.
Fostering泭Pro-Black泭Language in泭Teacher Education
In a week-long module centered on linguistic diversity, I (the first author) implement three strategies across 10 tasks designed to support preservice early childhood and elementary educators in learning about and shifting toward a pro-Black Language stance. These tasks are research-based and include both formative and summative assessments, measured through students pre- and post-module written reflections to assess the modules effectiveness. This module is strategically placed midway through courses to provide students with an opportunity to critically examine their beliefs while planning content泭area lessons.
In this section, I share how I implement parts of this module as well as past students responses to activities泭and discussions.
Identifying Biases and Examining泭Current Beliefs
Everyone has racial biases (Banaji & Greenwald 2013). It is important to guide preservice teachers toward awareness of their biases to disrupt them and prevent unintentional harm to young children and families. This requires the examination of beliefs regarding the use of Black Language in educational settings. Through activities, discussion, and reflection, preservice educators are positioned to learn about practices that are rooted in anti-Black racism, to unlearn untruths about Black Language and the people who speak it, and to relearn practices for establishing positive rapport with African American children. Overall, the aim is to foster the development of preservice educators泭racial literacy泭(Sealey-Ruiz 2021), or their ability to locate, discuss, and interrupt racism in education and to continuously work toward culturally responsive pedagogy. The following are two examples I use to help students uncover their biases and beliefs at the beginning of泭the module.
Learning About泭Hidden Biases
One of the first tasks that students engage in is a group activity. Students are prompted to identify, examine, and share common perceptions of groups of people. On sticky notes, they document how people in various racial and ethnic groups, economic groups, and those identified with various disabilities and learning needs are viewed. Then they apply their sticky notes to a shared chart. Afterward, we debrief during a泭whole-class泭discussion. As we unpack our findings, students are often intrigued by their awareness of how certain groups are seen broadly as privileged, athletic, smart,泭or hardworking.
After identifying societal perceptions of groups of people, we discuss how intersections of identity can further impact perceptions of an individual. For example, we examine and discuss how the intersection of race, education, gender, and economic status might influence how a young African American boy serviced through special education and living in a household with a lower income might be seen by those泭around him.
After this task, students engage in an individual activity. I use the Implicit Association Test (IAT) for Racewhich has been used as a collaborative assessment by researchers at Harvard, the University of Virginia, and other institutionsas a tool for students to self-assess their possible hidden biases. The test was created by psychologists Mahzarin R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald, who wrote the accompanying book,泭Blind Spot: Hidden Biases of Good People, published in 2013. They contend that well-intentioned people possess implicit biases, even if they believe they treat all people equally, and that their behaviors are guided by泭these biases.
When I facilitate this test with preservice teachers, most are perplexed to learn that they have preferences toward people of their own race. This realization generates reflections on students past interactions with children. For example, in a written response about her time in a classroom, one student recognized that she responded to the challenging behaviors of two children based on their racial identities, which echoed the results of the Gilliam et al. (2016) experimental research study referenced earlier. She wrote, Even though I do not consider myself to be biased, I know that I am. I have caught myself getting onto a Black student before getting onto a泭White child.
Examining Beliefs and Biases About泭Black Language
In another activity, I invite teacher candidates to uncover and examine their beliefs about Black Language. We begin by analyzing sources, such as those from social media and music, that include examples or discussion of Black Language. Then I ask them to recollect where they have encountered or used Black Language in their own lives. After reflecting, they journal about their views and understandings of Black Language and share their stances regarding its use in泭the classroom.
It is important to note that even among African American students, I have found that perspectives vary. For example, in one mathematics methods course, a majority of the African American students enrolled expressed comfort and daily communication with Black Language and described it positively as creative and interesting. One student shared that she felt Black Language was unappreciated, which contributed to self-doubt in [her] personal abilities, specifically in classrooms where she spoke differently than her peers. Other African American students discussed the need to distance themselves from Black Language by limiting their use of it to avoid being labeled as ghetto or uneducated. A few discussed the pressure to switch from using Black Language now that they attended a predominantly泭White institution.
At this point in the module, I have found that approximately a third of students consistently express strong opposition to using Black Language in educational settings while the remaining express concerns. In associating the use of Black Language with their schooling experiences, students have witnessed teachers harshly correcting African American students speech and have drawn associations between behavioral issues and Black Language. Several past students have described it as slang, and some have labeled it as inappropriate or vulgar. Others have suggested that Black Language can be used elsewhere, such as at home, but strongly held that teachers should promote White泭Mainstream English.
Building泭Background Knowledge
The second strategy is to build knowledge about Black Language. Teacher educators can provide opportunities for students to read and annotate research-based, peer-reviewed, and foundational publications and reflect on and respond to videos and talks that address fundamental information and ideas about Black Language. Resources that address the history, linguistic structure, pronunciation, and communicative assets of Black Language can lead to shifts in students views of Black Language. We have found that by engaging in background readings focused on these aspects of Black Language, teacher candidates often gain an appreciation for the ingenuity of Black Language speakers. For example, several students communicated appreciation for Black Languages historical and cultural roots of enslavement and泭Black liberation.
Readings and multimedia resources reinforce the idea that Black Language is not broken English; instead, it follows its own set of rules. Through videos and websites, preservice teachers learn about the concept that those who speak both Black Language and White Mainstream English are considered bilingual learners. Taken together, these resources aid preservice educators understanding that correcting Black Language speakers is a harmful act of dehumanization and linguistic violence. To support the preservice educators use of this knowledge, teacher educators can also share resources that illustrate what泭pro-Black泭Language approaches look like in action (see Resources for Building Background Knowledge泭at the end of this article).
Summarizing, Synthesizing,泭and Reflecting
My understanding has deepened to include the systemic origins of Black Language, rooted in the history of slavery. I now realize the importance of not only allowing Black students to express themselves authentically but also actively affirming and validating their language and identity.
A preservice early childhood educator
This excerpt from a teacher candidates written reflection demonstrated a shift in their perception and illustrates the journey that many of their peers have taken. As the module concludes, students have engaged with assigned resources and class discussions and gained a nuanced understanding of biases against Black Language as well as an appreciation for the languages innovation and strengths. From this vantage, they revisit their initial thoughts on the use of Black Language in educational settings and assess how their views have changed or been affirmed. While takeaways have varied, students have consistently expressed appreciation for gaining a broader perspective and deeper understanding of Black Language, with several noting the importance of celebrating the cultural and historical aspects of it. The third strategy provides opportunities for students to distill their learning through summary and synthesis and to reflect on it. This is accomplished through activities that include discussion, written reflection, engaging in scenarios, revisiting key texts, and exploring strategies for creating more inclusive learning environments for children who speak泭Black Language.
Making泭Valuable Connections
In addition to recognizing how their beliefs have changed through increased awareness and critical reflection, students consider how they may have internalized harmful ideas about Black Language in the past. For African American students, this is an important step. I have observed African American students, who initially distanced themselves from Black Language, express newfound pride in using it and begin to understand themselves as bilingual speakers. One African American student remarked, I now recognize the beauty [of Black Language] and feel like Ive had a history lesson on my泭own language!
Approximately a quarter of preservice educators who have taken the module have communicated a recognition of African American students as bilingual. For many, this understanding results from learning about the phonology and grammar of Black Language and concluding that it is its own language, separate from White Mainstream English. Once students gain this perspective of Black Language, they advocate for African American children to be seen as bilingual and for the inclusion of Black Language in泭learning settings.
Developing Strategies
As we engage in this final stage of the module, students have the opportunity to discuss remaining questions about how or even whether to include Black Language in educational settings. Many have pointed to the complicated nature of embracing Black Language as educators. They often wonder how to honor childrens use of Black Language while acknowledging pressures to speak White Mainstream English in education (and beyond), especially when children are asked to express their knowledge and ideas in written form. To address these questions, I facilitate a debrief discussion, and we revisit key readings to help us address concerns. Then we develop and discuss strategies.泭Examples include
- using a bidirectional approach by including both Black Language and White Mainstream English texts with children in泭learning settings
- encouraging children to articulate concepts in泭both languages
- using audio resources (for instance, during read alouds) if teachers are uncomfortable speaking in Black泭Language dialects
Applying Learning to泭Future Practice
To help preservice educators apply their learning about linguistic diversity and inclusion to their future practice, I lead them through scenarios. In one scenario, we explore how a teacher might respond to a child using Black Language to explain a mathematical concept. We reflect on previous material in the module about the impact educators responses can have on childrens confidence and sense of belonging, and we discuss how an educator can best affirm the child and support their learning. Ultimately, it is important for preservice teachers to understand that allowing children to express their thoughts in Black Language is key to honoring their identity and cultivating optimal learning and that they can use strategies to recognize and include Black Language in educational settings. 泭
We have found that it takes time for some preservice educators to process the validity of a pro-Black Language stance. However, many express enthusiasm about creating inclusive learning environments that embrace Black Language. A few have even highlighted the potential of Black Language to exist as a form of protest against oppression, emphasizing speaker agency and highlighting the need for泭language advocacy.
Creating Learning Settings Where All泭Children Belong
The pursuit of equity-oriented education where all children belong begins with the integration of a泭pro-Black泭Language approach. Teacher educators can encourage their students to reimagine instruction through a pro-Black lens, empowering them to create learning environments that honor the full spectrum of childrens linguistic and cultural identities. We offer the following considerations and guidance to teacher educators interested in implementing linguistic inclusion and diversity in泭their courses:
- Delve into current research and evolving perspectives on Black Language, and use your developing knowledge to help identify and examine your own beliefs泭and biases.
- Review your curriculum to ensure it includes diverse linguistic perspectives and authentic examples of Black Language use. Weave discussions about linguistic diversity throughout early childhood education courses rather than confining them to a single diversity module泭or course.
- Because engaging in linguistically inclusive practices is an ongoing journey, take time to engage in deep reflection after completing learning experiences with students to consider what new understandings you have acquired. Invite students to offer feedback about the learning experiences to help you refine your approaches to teaching about泭linguistic diversity.
Resources for Building Background Knowledge泭
The following are some of the background-building resources used in this module.泭泭泭
-
Four Things to Remember About Black Language: Examples from Childrens Books, by Gloria Swindler Boutte, published in Young Children, September 2015.泭泭
This article provides background about some of the language features of Black Language by highlighting many children's books that make brilliant use of the language by employing what some scholars refer to as code-meshing (Young 2014). These texts provide an accessible way for preservice teachers to see Black Languages sophistication and expressiveness within literary contexts.泭泭 -
This website was created and curated by April Baker-Bell and Carmen Kynard. I share several videos from this website and ask students to record their reactions, including ideas that resonated with them, that they disagreed with, and that they need clarification on.泭 -
, edited by Charlotte Brooks, 1985
This collection of essays provides essential background information on the cultural and linguistic features shaping Black literature and language, aligning with the call to learn about Black Language through Black scholars (Baker-Bell et al. 2020). Students annotate this text for key elements of Black Language, including historical context, significance in literature and education, and literary features. This text provides a historical grounding that helps contextualize current debates on Black Language in educational settings, fostering a more nuanced, culturally responsive perspective on language and literacy education while demonstrating the enduring relevance of strategies proposed decades ago.泭泭 -
"3 Ways to Speak English," a TED Talk given by Jamila Lyiscott, 2014泭泭
In this talk, Lyiscott discusses what it means to be "articulate" in different languages and dialects, including Black English. In addition, she shares how languages and dialects possess cultural and personal significance for speakers. This video builds understanding about the intersection of identity and language and provides ideas for students to reflect upon in discussion and/or writing.泭泭 -
"Let's Stop Talking About The '30 Million Word Gap, a National Public Radio news story by Anya Kamenetz, 2018泭泭
This resource challenges deficit-based narratives about language in Black and economically under-resourced communities. In it, Kamenetz argues against the harmful characterization of languages spoken by racially and economically marginalized groups as being less valid than White Mainstream English. This resource provides specific examples for students to investigate how an individuals intersecting identities can lead to a devaluation of their language, resulting in linguistic violence.泭泭
Photograph: 穢 Getty Images
Copyright 穢 2024 by the 51勛圖厙. See Permissions and Reprints online at .
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Taajah Witherspoon,泭PhD, is an assistant professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction. She researches algebraic learning and approaches to support marginalized students mathematical identities.泭[email protected]
Teaira McMurtry,泭PhD, is an assistant professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and former high school ELA teacher and curriculum specialist. Her research centers Black Language as a linguistic heirloom, and she advocates for linguistic justice in K12 classrooms and curriculum.泭泭